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Atom Model — Carbon-12

A carbon atom with 6 protons, 6 neutrons, and 12 electrons distributed across three shells (K: 2, L: 4, M: 6). The electrons orbit in the classic Bohr model visualization.

In reality, electrons don't orbit like planets. They exist as probability clouds called orbitals. The Bohr model shown here is a simplification that helps visualize energy levels (shells). Each shell can hold a maximum number of electrons: K=2, L=8, M=18. Carbon has atomic number 6, meaning 6 protons define the element. The strong nuclear force holds protons and neutrons together despite electromagnetic repulsion.

Not to scale. Speeds proportional to real orbital periods.

Solar System — All 8 Planets

Our solar system with proportional orbital speeds. Mercury zips around in 88 days. Neptune takes 165 years. Saturn's ring is visible as a tilted ellipse.

The solar system formed 4.6 billion years ago from a giant molecular cloud. The Sun contains 99.86% of the system's mass. Jupiter alone has more than twice the mass of all other planets combined. The asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter contains millions of rocky bodies. Beyond Neptune lies the Kuiper Belt, home to dwarf planets like Pluto and Eris. The Oort Cloud, at the very edge, extends nearly a light-year from the Sun.

Telophase / Cytokinesis

Cell Division — Mitosis

Watch a eukaryotic cell undergo mitosis: the membrane pinches, spindle fibers pull chromosomes apart, and two identical daughter cells form. Each cell receives a complete copy of DNA.

Mitosis consists of 5 phases: Prophase (chromosomes condense, spindle forms), Prometaphase (nuclear envelope breaks), Metaphase (chromosomes align at center), Anaphase (sister chromatids separate), and Telophase (nuclear envelopes reform). Cytokinesis then splits the cytoplasm. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow pinches the cell in two. In plant cells, a cell plate forms instead. A human body performs roughly 10 million cell divisions per day.

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DNA Double Helix

The molecule of life: two sugar-phosphate backbones connected by base pairs. Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T), Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C). The helix makes one full turn every 10 base pairs (3.4 nm).

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) was first described by Watson and Crick in 1953, building on Rosalind Franklin's X-ray crystallography data. Human DNA contains approximately 3.2 billion base pairs organized into 23 pairs of chromosomes. If stretched out, the DNA from a single human cell would be about 2 meters long. During transcription, the helix unwinds and RNA polymerase reads one strand to create messenger RNA (mRNA), which carries the genetic instructions for protein synthesis.

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